(image above 1) Al-Andalus, the Islamic European Empire from 8th to 15th century. This image illustrates the historical presence of Islam in Europe despite increasing Islamophobic sentiments and attitudes spreading throughout the Europe and the US in the post 9/11 era. Much of the former Islamic Empire make up the Southern region of Spain known today as Andalucia.
From Al-Andalus to 9/11: A longue durée prespective of Islamophobia in the Modern/Colonial World System*2
by Jordan Rodriguez
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Any contemporary discussion of Islamophobia must be situated and analyzed through a longue durée, historical perspective. Islamophobia should not simply be seen and understood as contemporary phenomenon with its origins dating to the post 9/11 era. Although, Islamophobia has been on the rise in recent decades, both in Europe and the United States; the roots of Islamophobia have a far earlier history that dates back to 1492 (continue below)
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A longue durée account of Islamophobia take as its point of departure the current modern/colonial world system that began in 1492. Most grade school children are familiar with the saying that, "In 1492 Columbus sailed the ocean blue", but that is really only one of TWO significant events to occur in this year. The year 1492 is significant in that it was both the year that the Catholic Spanish Monarch defeated the Islamic Empire, Al-Andalus and the year that King Fernando and Queen Isabel funded Columbus' famous voyage to "India" where he got lost and "discovered" the Americas. As Ramon Grosfoguel argues, these two events did not occur coincidentally, but rather they were planned this way. Columbus visited the King and Queen of Spain with a proposal to travel to India prior to the defeat of Al-Andalus wherein they told him that they first wanted to unify all of Spain under the Spanish Monarch before exploring alternative trade routes to the East (Grosfoguel, lecture at La Universidad Autonoma de Madrid click here).
Muslims have a very early historical presence in Europe, particularly in the South of Europe (Spain), dating back to the 8th century. Walter Mignolo discusses this history and the "imperial" difference between the Spanish Catholic Monarch and Islamic Europe, along with the birth of racism as we know it today in his article "Islamophobia/Hispanophobia" which can be read here (Mignolo, Islamophobia/Hispanophobia). Additional reading materials on this subject include Grosfoguel's "the Multiple Faces of Islamophobia" (here).
With the materials that I've linked to this page, I hope to be able to provide readers with the necessary materials to shift the focus and terrain in which the discussion currently takes place and put forth a new line of thought that Islamophobia be discussed in its historical context and not merely as a contemporary phenomenon because there is great deal of historical and social events that we need to familiarize ourselves with in order to discuss Islamophobia today in the post-9/11 era. In the following sections I will discuss Frantz Fanon's conception of racism and present, based on Grosfoguel's work, a conception of Islamophobia as multiple forms of racism that will help us to have a more complex and thorough understand Islamophobia, both, historically and in the present day.
The video above is a lecture by Ramon Grosfoguel who discusses the historical significance of 1492, Al-Andalus, and the birth of racism in the modern/colonial world system. See the Notes and Works Cited for more sources on this subject.
Muslims have a very early historical presence in Europe, particularly in the South of Europe (Spain), dating back to the 8th century. Walter Mignolo discusses this history and the "imperial" difference between the Spanish Catholic Monarch and Islamic Europe, along with the birth of racism as we know it today in his article "Islamophobia/Hispanophobia" which can be read here (Mignolo, Islamophobia/Hispanophobia). Additional reading materials on this subject include Grosfoguel's "the Multiple Faces of Islamophobia" (here).
With the materials that I've linked to this page, I hope to be able to provide readers with the necessary materials to shift the focus and terrain in which the discussion currently takes place and put forth a new line of thought that Islamophobia be discussed in its historical context and not merely as a contemporary phenomenon because there is great deal of historical and social events that we need to familiarize ourselves with in order to discuss Islamophobia today in the post-9/11 era. In the following sections I will discuss Frantz Fanon's conception of racism and present, based on Grosfoguel's work, a conception of Islamophobia as multiple forms of racism that will help us to have a more complex and thorough understand Islamophobia, both, historically and in the present day.
The video above is a lecture by Ramon Grosfoguel who discusses the historical significance of 1492, Al-Andalus, and the birth of racism in the modern/colonial world system. See the Notes and Works Cited for more sources on this subject.
A Fanonian Account of Racism: the Zone of Being & the Zone of Non-Being3There is chance that you are thinking "Wait, why bring up Fanon in a historical discussion of Islamophobia?" Well before I move onto the discussion of Islamophobia as racism (or as you will see later as multiple forms of racism) it is necessary for me to provide the proper account of racism that I have in mind, a Fanonian account.
For Martinique born psychiatrist Frantz Fanon, "racism is a global hierarchy of superiority and inferiority along the line of the human that has been culturally, politically, and socially produced and reproduced throughout the centuries of the modern/colonial world system." The line of the human is a demarcating line in which the humanity of a person is or is not socially recognized (Grosfoguel, La Descolonizacion). Those subjects above the line of the human have their humanity recognized through various rights such as "human, civil, social, and labor rights". Those subjects whose humanity is recognized are located in the zone of being. Those subjects who are below the line of the human are relegated to the zone of non-being and are reduced to sub-human or non-human. That is their humanity is NOT socially recognized, and it is in question or negated! (Grosfoguel, La Descolonizacion del Conocimiento). Why use a Fanonian account of racism? Human...Non-Human? This is a strange discussion. Ramon Grosfoguel argues that a Fanonian account allows us to conceive of "multiple forms of racism" (a topic I will return to in the next section) and furthermore that this allows us to "avoid the reductionism in many definitions" of racism (Grosfoguel, La Descolonizacion del Conocimiento). A definition of racism based on the recognition of one's humanity ultimately allows for us to conceive of multiple forms beyond just culture or skin color. It is by using a Fanonian conception of racism that we can better understand Islamophobia as multiple forms of racism. For a more comprehensive discussion of Fanon's conception of racism and the zone of being and the zone of non-being click here to read a 14 page paper that I wrote which details Grosfoguel's understanding of Fanon's racism. Grosfoguel's article currently is only published in Spanish because of this I refer reader's to my article where I've translated sections of Grosfoguel's article to English. |
The video below is a 40 minute lecture (in Spanish) by Grosfoguel discussing the zone of being (la zona del ser) and the zone of non-being (la zona del no ser) in great detail. |
Multiple Faces of Islamophobia 4: A Brief Discussion on Forms of Racism
Racism or forms of racism? What does this mean? It is critical that we understand that racism can take on multiple forms: cultural, epistemic, skin color, language, and religion (just to name a few). This becomes clear to us when we use a Fanonian account of racism based on the questioning of one's humanity. If we limit our understanding of racism to an understanding based solely on skin color then we will not see racism in places where it exist.
I point this out because in the United States the primary form of racism has been skin color, however; if we export this limited and narrow understanding of racism to Germany, for instance, in which German people target Eastern Europeans who are also white skinned but who are Jews or Muslims we will be left concluding that racism does not exist in Germany. In addition, we must keep in mind that racial hierarchies (the vertical ordering of racial groups based on superiority and inferiority) also changes from country to country. What remains static, in almost every case, is whites are positioned on the top of the hierarchy and blacks are inferiorized occupying the bottom of the hierarchy (Grosfoguel, La Descolonizacion del Conocimiento). The work of black existentialist philosopher Lewis Gordon is a valuable resource in understanding of this Manichean, misanthropic skepticism as well as elucidating Fanon's thoughts.
In his article "The Multiple Faces of Islamophobia" (click here) Ramon Grosfoguel identifies:
Islamophobia as Four Forms of Racism:
For a more detailed discussion of forms of racism (with a particular emphasis on epistemic racism) click here.
I point this out because in the United States the primary form of racism has been skin color, however; if we export this limited and narrow understanding of racism to Germany, for instance, in which German people target Eastern Europeans who are also white skinned but who are Jews or Muslims we will be left concluding that racism does not exist in Germany. In addition, we must keep in mind that racial hierarchies (the vertical ordering of racial groups based on superiority and inferiority) also changes from country to country. What remains static, in almost every case, is whites are positioned on the top of the hierarchy and blacks are inferiorized occupying the bottom of the hierarchy (Grosfoguel, La Descolonizacion del Conocimiento). The work of black existentialist philosopher Lewis Gordon is a valuable resource in understanding of this Manichean, misanthropic skepticism as well as elucidating Fanon's thoughts.
In his article "The Multiple Faces of Islamophobia" (click here) Ramon Grosfoguel identifies:
Islamophobia as Four Forms of Racism:
- Racism in a World Historical Perspective: Grosfoguel discusses how religious difference in the Pre-Modern/Colonial world (Islam vs Christianity) became a racial/ethnic difference in the modern/colonial world with 1492.
- Epistemic Racism: "most hidden form of racism" against non-Western/Europeans and European women as producers of knowledge and their knowledges. Muslims as subjects of knowledge are inferior to Western (secular) male thinkers.
- Orientalism: This account of racism is when a religion, culture, or race is Orientalized which means that they are inferiorized in comparison to the West who is cultural (among other things) superior. Orientalism is a concept developed by Edward Said in which the West has produced a discourse on non-Western/European people which claims to be true yet does not take anybody else's account into perspective often times producing erroneous facts (Said 1978).
- Cultural Racism: Grosfoguel highlights the shift from biological racism towards cultural racism in which "the word race is not even mentioned". Islamophobia becomes a form of cultural racism when racist discourses such as uncivilized, barbarian, and savage become linked to non-Western religions or the non-hegemonic religions.
For a more detailed discussion of forms of racism (with a particular emphasis on epistemic racism) click here.
For more Information
1) A Lecture by Ramon Grosfoguel (UC Berkeley) on the history of Islam in Spain and the Islamic Empire Al-Andalus.
https://soundcloud.com/ihrc/the-roots-of-islamophobia-by-ramon-grosfoguel
2) A blog on decolonial thinking and modernity/coloniality (world systems analysis, zone of being/nonbeing, global hierarchies of power):
http://decolonialthinking.blogspot.com/
3) Articles by decolonial thinkers (Ramon Grosfoguel, Houria Bouteldja, Maldonado-Torres) from around the world dealing with issues on Islamophobia and other decolonial projects/theories:
http://www.decolonialtranslation.com/
4) Islamic Human Rights Commission Facebook page. They invite professors to come speak on issues of Islamophobia which they stream the lectures:
https://www.facebook.com/pages/Islamic-Human-Rights-Commission/109724959498?fref=ts
5) To better understand Grosfoguel's world system analysis read his article on Decolonizing Paradigms of Political Economy in which he identifies 15 global hierarchies of power. Here is a link to the article: http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/21k6t3fq and/or watch this youtube lecture by Grosfoguel on the subject titled "Cartography of Power": http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NrmC7tHi6dk
https://soundcloud.com/ihrc/the-roots-of-islamophobia-by-ramon-grosfoguel
2) A blog on decolonial thinking and modernity/coloniality (world systems analysis, zone of being/nonbeing, global hierarchies of power):
http://decolonialthinking.blogspot.com/
3) Articles by decolonial thinkers (Ramon Grosfoguel, Houria Bouteldja, Maldonado-Torres) from around the world dealing with issues on Islamophobia and other decolonial projects/theories:
http://www.decolonialtranslation.com/
4) Islamic Human Rights Commission Facebook page. They invite professors to come speak on issues of Islamophobia which they stream the lectures:
https://www.facebook.com/pages/Islamic-Human-Rights-Commission/109724959498?fref=ts
5) To better understand Grosfoguel's world system analysis read his article on Decolonizing Paradigms of Political Economy in which he identifies 15 global hierarchies of power. Here is a link to the article: http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/21k6t3fq and/or watch this youtube lecture by Grosfoguel on the subject titled "Cartography of Power": http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NrmC7tHi6dk
Notes
1) Main image: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_DCReaxFkYd8/TC36guIw9fI/AAAAAAAAABk/AxSXCShnaBI/s1600/califato+Al+Andalus.jpg
Youtube video 1: http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=y7tKMHsyiXA
Youtube video 2: http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=2YUDF0GI5Ng
2) It is important to keep in mind that when I use the short hand "modern/colonial world system" that I am referring specifically to Ramon Grosfoguel's articulation which is a "Capitalist/Patriarchal Western-centric/Christian-centric modern/colonial world system"
3) The information from this section are my translations of Ramon Grosfoguel's article "La Descolonizacion del Conocimiento" originally published in Spanish (see Works Cited). This is the only article published by Grosfoguel to this date that discusses the zone of being and the zone of non-being and Fanon's account of racism. This is very important information and that is why I have decided to translate and use the information for this section.
4) I am borrowing the title from Ramon Grosoguel's article "The Multiple Faces of Islamophobia" (2011).
Youtube video 1: http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=y7tKMHsyiXA
Youtube video 2: http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=2YUDF0GI5Ng
2) It is important to keep in mind that when I use the short hand "modern/colonial world system" that I am referring specifically to Ramon Grosfoguel's articulation which is a "Capitalist/Patriarchal Western-centric/Christian-centric modern/colonial world system"
3) The information from this section are my translations of Ramon Grosfoguel's article "La Descolonizacion del Conocimiento" originally published in Spanish (see Works Cited). This is the only article published by Grosfoguel to this date that discusses the zone of being and the zone of non-being and Fanon's account of racism. This is very important information and that is why I have decided to translate and use the information for this section.
4) I am borrowing the title from Ramon Grosoguel's article "The Multiple Faces of Islamophobia" (2011).
Works Cited
Grosfoguel, Ramon lecture in Spanish at Universidad Autonoma de Madrid: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GJmDKCBv-yI
Grosfoguel, Ramon "The Multiple Faces of Islamophobia", Islamophobia Studies Journal Vol. 1 No. 1, Spring 2012
Grosfoguel, Ramon "La Descolonizacion del Conocimiento: Dialogo Critical Entre La Vision Descolonial de Frantz Fanon y La Sociologia Descolonial de Boaventura De Sousa Santos", 2012
Mignolo, Walter "Islamophobia/Hispanophobia: The (Re)Configuration of the Racial Imperial/Colonial Matrix", Human Architecture: Journal of Sociology of Self Knowledge, V, 1, Fall 2006
Said, Edward "Orientalism" Introduction, Vintage books, 1978
Grosfoguel, Ramon "The Multiple Faces of Islamophobia", Islamophobia Studies Journal Vol. 1 No. 1, Spring 2012
Grosfoguel, Ramon "La Descolonizacion del Conocimiento: Dialogo Critical Entre La Vision Descolonial de Frantz Fanon y La Sociologia Descolonial de Boaventura De Sousa Santos", 2012
Mignolo, Walter "Islamophobia/Hispanophobia: The (Re)Configuration of the Racial Imperial/Colonial Matrix", Human Architecture: Journal of Sociology of Self Knowledge, V, 1, Fall 2006
Said, Edward "Orientalism" Introduction, Vintage books, 1978